Classical association, operant consequences and stimulus–response connections in one practical revision sheet.
Three Core Concepts
Concept 01 · Ivan Pavlov
Classical Conditioning
Core principle/rule: Classical conditioning is learning through association. A natural stimulus producing an involuntary reflex is paired with a neutral stimulus until the neutral stimulus alone triggers the same newly learned reflex.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)Naturally and automatically triggers a response—for example, food.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)Unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS—for example, salivation at food.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)An originally neutral stimulus that, after association with the UCS, triggers a response—for example, a bell.
Conditioned Response (CR)The learned response to a formerly neutral stimulus—for example, salivation at the bell.
Further processes
Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus—for example, a child conditioned to fear a white rat also fears a white rabbit.
Extinction: Gradual weakening and disappearance of the conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.
Concept 02 · B. F. Skinner
Operant Conditioning
Core principle/rule: Operant conditioning is learning through consequences. Voluntary behaviour is strengthened by reinforcement and diminished by punishment.
Key facts
Positive (+) vs. Negative (−): Positive means adding a stimulus; negative means removing one. Neither means good or bad.
Reinforcement: Any consequence that increases the likelihood of behaviour recurring.
Punishment: Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of behaviour recurring.
Continuous reinforcement: Reward every correct response; best for teaching a brand-new behaviour.
Variable-ratio reinforcement: Reward after an unpredictable number of responses—like slot machines. Produces the highest, most consistent response rate and greatest resistance to extinction.
Concept 03 · Edward Thorndike
Connectionism & Laws of Learning
Core principle/rule: Thorndike's Connectionism says learning results from neural bonds—connections—between a Stimulus (S) and Response (R) through trial and error.
Key facts
Law of Readiness: Learning occurs only when the learner is physically, mentally and emotionally ready. Forcing learning before developmental readiness causes frustration.
Law of Exercise: Connections strengthen with practice and repetition—Law of Use—and weaken when practice stops—Law of Disuse.
Law of Effect: Responses producing a satisfying or pleasant effect become more likely to recur; responses producing discomfort become less likely. This directly laid the groundwork for Skinner's Operant Conditioning.
Quick Reference
Table A · Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
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Feature
Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
Type of Behaviour
Involuntary / Reflexive—for example, sweating, salivating, fear.
Voluntary / Intentional—for example, raising a hand, completing homework.
Timing of Stimulus
Stimulus occurs before the response—a bell triggers salivation.
Stimulus or consequence occurs after the response—homework earns a sticker.
Role of Learner
Passive—the environment does things to the learner.
Active—the learner operates on the environment.
Table B · Skinner's Four Quadrants of Consequences
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Consequence Type
Add or Remove?
Goal
Classroom Example
Positive Reinforcement
Add (+) a stimulus
Increase behaviour
Giving a gold star for a good essay.
Negative Reinforcement
Remove (−) a stimulus
Increase behaviour
Dropping the lowest quiz grade for perfect attendance.